Socio-economic Studies of Science, Technology and Innovation in Spain
The difficult aim of this paper is to describe, in few pages, the rise and development of socio- economic research on science, technology and innovation in Spain. This exercise takes the risk of missing some of the information and relevant contributors, but it will try to summarise the complexity of the situation and define the main features of the field in Spain.1 The objective is to identify groups or people involved in the field on a permanent basis; thus, in general, authors of single contributions have been ignored.
It is no secret that this field in Spain is less developed than in other European countries. To understand this situation we should be remember how, historically, the development of the Spanish scientific and technological research activities has been low in comparison to some other European countries. Science has played a very limited role in public life, so it could be perfectly understood that this topic has attracted little attention from researchers. In fact, until the mid- eighties research, science, technology and innovation were not introduced in a relevant place in the political agenda. This created a lack of incentive to allocate resources from the social scientists to the issue.
A secondary explanatory element is the small room, in the Spanish university system, for socio- economic studies of S&T. First, the Franco dictatorship created significant constraints for the development of social science (especially Sociology and Political Sciences). Second, until the 90s, no systematic teaching was given or diploma granted (at bachelor, Master or PhD levels) in this field by any Spanish university; only some courses in the sociology of science at undergraduate level were offered. There was a scarcity of new researchers in the field, impeding its development. Thus the main supply of researchers has come from either natural science or abroad.
All these factors have made for a field of disperse efforts undertaken by individuals in different institutions. There has been no systematic effort to create research centres. Such a situation is reflected in the late arrival of specific associations and journals in the field.
Before the early eighties no significant activity in the research field, either conceptually or empirically, was carried out, with significant exceptions in some adjacent domains. Spain had a very active community in philosophy of science. In 1971 an excellent journal, Teorema, was launched that defined sociology of science as one of its areas of interest. It created the conditions for rapid dissemination and re-elaboration of the Kuhnian arguments on the sociology of scientific knowledge.
But in sociology, in the mid seventies, only a few isolated individuals developed activities in Sociology of Science, mostly with the central aim of disseminating the arguments and ideas of the flourishing international research. Some individuals, mostly educated in the Mertonian tradition in US, such as J. Jim‚nez-Blanco, M. Beltr n, P. Gonz lez-Blasco, J.M. L¢pez-Pi¤ero, or M. Garc¡a-Ferrando played a role in translating the original contribution and preparing the first Spanish textbooks in the late seventies. Other people also made sporadic contributions to the literature in Spanish, however much their activity was concentrated in other domains, such E. Lamo in the area of Sociology of Knowledge. The situation also can be summed up by the fact that, in Spain, the first diploma in Sociology (by the first School of Political Sciences and Sociology) was granted in 1977.
The history of science also was an emerging discipline which didn t play any role in the Schools of History. Those who started the movement to study the history of science (and, later, the history of technology) came from the Medicine Schools, Physics Schools, etc., and were trained originally in the natural sciences.an original training in natural science. In this domain the role of the CSIC should be mentioned. It s the biggest research institution in the country that, in its actual Centre for Historical Studies, gave support to the development of History of Science research, with people like J.L. Peset or A. Lafuente. In fact, it was in December 1978, when the First Congress of the Spanish Society on History of Science was held in Madrid, chaired by S. Garma. This focus was renewed later, with contributions in history of science from the Autonomous University of Madrid (J.M. S nchez-Ron or J. Ordo¤ez) and in economic history of technology (S. L¢pez at the University of Salamanca).
A second group, very important because of its significant internationalisation, emerged at the CSIC documentation center (CINDOC). Their focus was mainly on measuring science through bibliometrics. The group was created with researchers mainly from the natural sciences (as Aida M‚ndez, Isabel G¢mez-Caridad, M.T. Fern ndez, etc). In addition to their research in Spanish scientific production, this group also has played a very relevant role in diffusing the bibliometric activities at national level. They edited the journal Revista Espa¤ola de Documentaci¢n Cient¡fica.. The group had continued its growth in the nineties with new researchers as Mar¡a Bordons. They also had play a role in the diffusion of bibliometric studies, influencing other universities such as Granada (E. Jim‚nez-Contreras ) or Carlos III of Madrid (E. Sanz).
As in many other countries, Economics has been a basic discipline for the development of research on technology and innovation. In Spain the strongest tradition emerged in the mid- seventies at the Complutense University of Madrid (with J. Molero, M. Buesa, C. Mart¡n or L. Rodr¡guez-Romero), the latter two having worked through eighties at the influential Fundaci¢n Empresa P£blica, making a significant contribution to the study of technology as a productive factor. The former two, Molero and Buesa, have continued working to the present at the Institute of Industrial and Financial Analysis of the Complutense University. The influence of some economists from SPRU should be taken seriously to understand the themes (technology and MNCs, etc.) of attention of these researchers. Some other individual researchers emerged in the Autonomous University of Madrid (as Paloma Sanchez) or in Oviedo (as F. Lobo or Z. Fern ndez)
Engineers also have contributed since the early days to the socio-economic analysis of technology and innovation, such as J. Pav¢n or J.R. Figuera at the Technical University of Madrid, or P. Escorsa and F. Sol‚-Parellada at the technical University of Barcelona. For more than a decade Engineers (such us F. Ros, M. Gamella, etc) also have been responsible for FUNDESCO, a significant contribution to the social study of communication and new technologies.
The external environment of research changed in mid-eighties. The attention to STI issues has grown in relation to increased interest in public policy S&T. When the socialist government came into office S&T entered the policy agenda. The attraction of public attention to S&T transformed the context of development of the field, because it created significant opportunities for academic entrepreneurs in the development of the field.
Some people educated in Philosophy Schools have played a relevant role in disseminating the STS and SSS debates. A group based in Valencia and Barcelona played a role in the preparation of textbooks for high schools; INVESCIT was a group including J. Sanmart¡n and M. Medina, later J.L. Luj n, or J.L.L¢pez-Cerezo, and others. Reflections on technology assessment had been one of their main lines of action. Other philosophers at the CSIC Institute of Philosophy, such J. Echevarr¡a or J. Moster¡n, have been also active.
Unfortunately disciplinary research in Sociology in Spain had made marginal contributions to the production of new knowledge in this field. The dominant strategy of lecturers and researchers educated in Spain had been one of acting as translators of papers and the debates between the international sociological schools, with very little empirical research. Between them individuals based in different Universities such E. Medina, T. Gonz lez de la Fe, C. Torres, J.M. Iranzo or R. Blanco played a role in making some texts available in Spanish. Two individual exceptions are the the Vasc Country University group created by M. Olazar n, trained at Edinburgh, on social shaping of science, and the activities of R. Pardo al the Fundaci¢n BBV on public perception of science.
A different case is represented by Manuel Castells s contribution to the analysis of new technologies. Between 1985 and 1990, the newly created Institute for the Sociology of New Technologies at the Autonomous University of Madrid was a key research centre. But today after Castells left the University to join the CSIC it has almost disappeared from the map.
The development of S&T policies in Spain also has played a significant role, not only because the favourable environment created, but also due to the fact that a couple of key politicians and policy makers in mid-eighties after finishing office started to promote and develop direct research, an interest they had while in the Parliament or Government.
A very significant case is M A. Quintanilla, senator, Chair of the Parliamentary Commission for S&T, and advocate of the technology assessment activities at the Spanish Parliament. After he quit the Parliament he returned to his chair of Philosophy at the University of Salamanca and mobilised a group of research called EPOC (Evaluation of Science Policies). The report produced by the Commission, evaluating new S&T policy in 1990 served as a base to create that group, now is running a Masters Course in Communication and Science .
The second case is Emilio Mu¤oz, biochemist by training, key policy actor and one of the entrepreneurs that promoted the reforms of the S&T system when the socialists came into office. Mu¤oz, who had been Director-General of Science Policy, General Secretary of National R&D Plan and President of the CSIC (National Research Centre), made some analytical contributions while at office. But when he returned to a regular research position, he requested to be transfered to the CSIC Institute for Advanced Social Studies (IESA Madrid), where, jointly with Luis Sanz- Men‚ndez a sociologist and political scientist, created RUSTEP - Research Unit on Science and Technology Policy . Since its creation it has grown through its involvement in international research projects on S&T policy and research systems dynamics.
There are some other cases of individuals, with no previous records in S&T studies, who during (as L. Oro) or after (as I. Fern ndez de Lucio, A. Modrego, J. Sebasti n or J. L¢pez- Facal) their stay in office made some contribution to science policy at national level. Also a Union group from Comisiones Obreras (A. Duran, E. Criado, etc) from the May 1st Foundation have done some analysis in this field.
In Spain the field of economics and busines administration is still the main supplier of research in science, technology and innovation studies. Additional groups have consolidated in the University Carlos III of Madrid (with Zulima Fern ndez, Clara E. Garcia, etc.), the Autonomous University of Madrid (with P. S nchez, P. Morcillo, A. Cadenas), the University of Santiago (X. Vence), the Autonomous University of Barcelona (D. P‚rez, I. Busom, etc), and even at the CSIC Institute of Economy and Geography (R. Rama, etc.). However, in the last years some other individuals have entered the Spanish map from different areas, as the sociologist J. Bellavista, trained at PREST, or the political scientists X. Ballart and J. Subirats in Barcelona, or people living in other countries, like J. Molas-Gallart in UK or S. Borras in Denmark.
The precariousness of the research area is reflected in the fact that there is not a specific journal, though Arbor, directed by M.A. Quintanilla, has played the relevant role of becoming one place for exchange of contributions in the field. Since the early nineties new Master degrees and attempts of developing PhD courses in Madrid, Salamanca, Barcelona, Valencia, Sevilla, etc. in science, technology and innovation studies have increased the supply of people entering the field. RICTES, a professional association, has been an interesting experience, conceived while four of the significant reseachers in the field (in different disciplines) were participating in the 25th Anniversary of SPRU (Molero, Quintanilla, S nchez and Sanz-Men‚ndez). RICTES started as a soft attempt to develop the field in collaboration with the organisation of the First Spanish Workshop in September 1992. Since then RICTES has become a formal Association and has organised four Conferences which have allowed the people from different disciplines to develop communication and convergence.
At present there are two main challenges for the field in Spain: the strong internationalisation and Europeanisation trend in Spanish research groups, and the consolidation of the trans- disciplinary research efforts developed in the previous years at the national level.
NOTE
- For a list of references and address of some people mentioned here, see: M. Olazar n and M. Moso (1998): Social Studies of Science and Technology in Spain , in Knut Sorensen (ed.) Similar Concerns, Different Styles? Technology Studies in Western Europe - Part 2, Brussels: CEC-COST-A4 Series, 1998; or those included in the, for Spain very incomplete, The European Guide of Science, technology an Innovation Studies (P. Wouters, J. Annerstedt & L. Leydesdorff ) at hhttp://www.chem.nl/sts/guide/draftguide4_ct.html
author s address: Lsanz@iesam.csic.es